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The earliest civilisation in Thailand is believed to have been that of the Mons in central Thailand, who brought a Buddhist culture from the Indian subcontinent. In the 12th century, this met a Khmer culture moving from the east, the Sumatran-based Srivijaya culture moving north, and citizens of the Thai stateof Nan Chao, in what is now southern China, migrating south. Thai princes created the first Siamese capital in Sukhothai, later centres in Chiang Mai and, notably, Ayuthaya. The Burmese invaded Siam in both the 16th and 18th centuries, capturing Chiang Mai and destroying Ayuthaya. The Thais expelled the Burmese and moved their capital to Thonburi. In 1782, the current Chakri dynasty was founded by King Rama I and the capital was moved across the river to Bangkok. In the 19th century, Siam remained independent by deftly playing off one European power against another. In 1932, a peaceful coup converted the country into a constitutional monarchy, and in 1939 Siam became Thailand. During WW II, the Thai government allowed Japanese troops to occupy Thailand. After the war, Thailand was dominated by the military and experienced more than twenty coups and countercoups interspersed with short-lived experiments with democracy. Democratic elections in 1979 were followed by a long period ofstability and prosperity as power shifted from the military to the business elite. In February 1991 a military coup ousted the Chatichai government, but bloody demonstrations in May 1992 led to the reinstatement of a civilian government with Chuan Leekpai at the helm. This coalition government collapsed in May 1995 over a land-reform scandal but replacement Prime Minister Banharn Silpa-archa was no better. Dubbed a 'walking ATM' by the Thai press, he was forced to relinquish the prime ministership just over a year later after a spate of corruption scandals. Ex-general and former deputy PM Chavalit Yongchaiyudh headed a dubious coalition until late 1997, when veteran pragmatist Chuan Leekpai retook the reins. Thai cynics will tell you that, despite all the leader-swapping, things never change. Widespread vote-buying and entrenched corruption make a joke of democracy, and until this is rectified Thailand's claims to democratic status and political stability will remain as shaky as ever. In 1997 the Thai baht pretty much collapsed, dragging the economy (and many other South-East Asian economies) down in a screaming heap. In August the International Monetary Fund stepped in with a bailout package of austerity measures, which - although it slowed Thailand's growth dramatically and hit the poor hardest - seemed to have turned things around by early 1998. By the turn of the new century, Thailand's economy had stopped going into free fall, but rebuilding had only just begun. Genuine attempts to weed out corruption seem underway, but the poverty-stricken members of Thailand are still wary of promises and agitating for more reforms. Monarchy and religion are the two sacred cows in Thailand. Thais are tolerant of most behaviour, as long as it doesn't insult one of these. Buddhism is thedominant religion, and orange-robed monks and gold, marble and stone Buddhas are common sights. The prevalent form of Buddhism practised is the Theravada school,which emphasises the potential of the individual to attain nirvana without the aid of saints or gurus. Make sure you are suitably dressed when visiting a temple - no shorts or singlets. Thai is a complicated language with its own unique alphabet, but it's fun to try at least a few words. The main complication with Thai is that it is tonal: the same word could be pronounced with a rising, falling, high, low or level tone and could theoretically have five meanings! Thai art, principally sculpture and architecture, is divided into a number of historical styles beginning with Mon (6th-13thC), Khmer (7th-13th C), Peninsular (until 14th C), Lan Na (13th-14th C), Sukhothai (13th-15th C), Lopburi (10th-13th C), Suphanburi-Sangkhlaburi (13th-15th C), Ayuthaya A (1350-1488), Ayuthaya B (1488-1630), Ayuthaya C (1630-1767) and Ratanakosin (19th C to present). Classical Thai music and theatrical dance are also popular artistic forms. Thai cuisine is pungent and spicy, seasoned with heaps of garlic and chillies and a characteristic mix of lime juice, lemon grass and fresh coriander. Galanga root, basil, ground peanuts, tamarind juice, ginger and coconut milk are other common additions. Fish sauce or shrimp paste are mainstays of Thai dishes, and of course rice is eaten with most meals. Main dishes include hot and sour fish ragout, green and red curries, various soups and noodle dishes. Thai food is served with a variety of condiments and dipping sauces. Snacks and appetisers include fried peanuts, chicken, chopped ginger, peppers and slices of lime. There is an incredible variety of fruit available, either fresh or juiced. Sugar-cane juice and, for something stronger, rice whisky are favourite local tipples. Thailand shares borders with Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Laos and Cambodia. The country's east coast borders the Gulf of Thailand and the west coast abuts the Andaman Sea. The country is divided into four main zones: the fertile, central plains of the Chao Phraya River; the poorer region of the 300m (985ft) high northeast plateau; the fertile valley and mountains of Northern Thailand; and the rainforested southern peninsula. The highest peak is the 2596m (8512ft) Doi Inthanon in Chiang Mai province. A quarter of Thailand is covered by monsoon forest or rainforest, and the country has an incredible array of fruit trees, bamboo and tropical hardwoods. There are 66 national parks and 32 wildlife sanctuaries, covering 11 per cent of the country. They contain more than 850 resident and migratory species of birds and dwindling numbers of tigers, leopards, elephants and Asiatic black bears. Unfortunately, attempts to stop the logging of rainforests and illegal trafficking in endangered species are fighting an uphill battle against corruption, officials only too happy to make a buck on the side, and tourists packing an exotica or two down their dacks as they walk through customs. The tiger, for instance, is one of the most endangered of Thailand's mammals but the market for tiger organs, particularly in China, is so lucrative that poaching is still a viable career option. Overdevelopment on Ko Phi Phi is starving the coral reefs of sunlight and smothering the surface in pollutants: the destruction of the reef is a micro-example of the problems occuring on a national scale, with the finger being pointed in the direction of tourism. In May 1999, protestors packed the beach where the filming of 'The Beach' was taking place: environmentalists were concerned that filming would destroy the delicate eco-balance of the beach. Ironically, the film was about the destruction of native cultures and environments by hordes of dropped-out, alternative life-seeking backpackers (curiously, the filmmakers were silent on the issue of hordes of filmmakers destroying delicate eco-balances). One of the main culprits according to the Alex Garland, author of the best selling novel, is Lonely Planet. Thailand's climate is ruled by monsoons that produce three seaons in northern, northeastern and central Thailand and two in southern Thailand. Generally the 'dry and wet monsoon climate' arrives sometime between May and July and lasts into November. It is followed by a dry season from November to May in which temperatures are relatively lower until February and then begin to soar from March to May.
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